Revise Religion and society for Cambridge 9699 (11.1)

Sociologists define religion in two main ways. Substantive definitions, favoured by early sociologists like Max Weber, focus on the content or substance of belief. For Weber, a religion must involve a belief in a supernatural or transcendent power. This approach is exclusive, as it clearly delineates what is and is not a religion based on a specific criterion. In contrast, functional definitions, championed by Émile Durkheim, define religion by the social or psychological functions it performs for individuals and society. For Durkheim, anything that promotes social integration and a collective conscience by uniting people around a set of shared sacred beliefs and practices can be considered a religion, even if it lacks a supernatural element. This makes the functional approach more inclusive.

A third approach, social constructionism, moves beyond defining religion by its content or function. Instead, it focuses on how religion is defined, contested, and given meaning by different social groups. From this perspective, there is no universal definition of religion; it is a social construct. Sociologists using this approach are interested in the power dynamics involved in labelling certain belief systems as 'religions' and others as 'cults' or 'sects'. For example, they might study how an organisation like Scientology has campaigned to be legally recognised as a religion to gain tax benefits and legitimacy. This approach does not seek to find a 'correct' definition but rather to understand who has the power to define and what the consequences of that definition are.

The secularisation thesis is the argument that religious thinking, practice, and institutions are losing their social significance in modern societies. Proponents like Bryan Wilson and Steve Bruce argue that processes of modernity, particularly rationalisation and social differentiation, have undermined the role of religion. Rationalisation, the replacement of magical or religious ways of thinking with rational, scientific ones, means people no longer need religion to explain the world. Social differentiation refers to the process where specialised institutions, like the state, take over functions previously performed by the church, such as education and welfare. This confines religion to the private sphere, reducing its public influence and authority. For these sociologists, secularisation is a key feature of modern industrial societies.

The secularisation thesis is heavily debated. Critics argue that religion is not declining but simply changing form. Grace Davie puts forward the concept of 'believing without belonging', suggesting that many people hold religious beliefs but no longer feel the need to attend church. Danièle Hervieu-Léger describes a form of 'spiritual shopping', where individuals now pick and mix different elements of various religions to create a personalised belief system, treating religion like a consumer product. Furthermore, sociologists point to the global resurgence of religion, particularly the rise of fundamentalism in the USA and the Middle East, as evidence against a simple, linear decline. These trends suggest a more complex picture than the original secularisation thesis allowed for, indicating religious transformation rather than terminal decline.

Sociologists use a typology to classify religious organisations. Ernst Troeltsch distinguished between the church and the sect. A church is a large, bureaucratic organisation, often with a hierarchy of paid officials, which aims to be inclusive of all members of society. It is typically conservative and closely linked to the state. In contrast, a sect is a small, exclusive group demanding strong commitment from its members. It is often hostile to wider society and claims a monopoly of religious truth. Roy Wallis later expanded this typology to include denominations (e.g., Methodism), which are midway between a church and a sect, and cults or New Religious Movements (NRMs), which are highly individualistic, loose-knit groupings often based around a shared theme or interest.