Revise Intelligence and educational attainment for Cambridge 9699 (6.1)

Intelligence is a highly contested concept, but in the context of this debate, it typically refers to cognitive abilities like reasoning, problem-solving, and abstract thinking. It is most commonly operationalised and measured using standardised Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests. These tests, such as the Stanford-Binet, are designed to produce a score where the population average is 100. An individual's score is meant to indicate their 'mental age' relative to their chronological age. However, sociologists are highly critical of IQ tests, arguing they do not measure a pure, innate, or fixed ability. Instead, they may reflect a narrow form of analytical skill that is valued by the education system, as well as an individual's familiarity with the language and knowledge of the dominant culture.

The hereditarian perspective posits that intelligence is primarily determined by genetic inheritance. Proponents argue that just as we inherit physical traits, we also inherit our cognitive potential. A key, and highly controversial, study supporting this view is 'The Bell Curve' (1994) by Herrnstein and Murray. They claimed that intelligence is largely (60-80%) inherited and is a better predictor of educational attainment, job performance, and life success than a person's social class background. They used this argument to suggest that social stratification is a natural outcome of innate differences in cognitive ability. Evidence for this perspective often draws from twin studies, which show that identical (monozygotic) twins reared apart have a higher correlation in IQ scores than non-identical (dizygotic) twins reared together.

In direct opposition, the environmental argument asserts that social factors are the primary determinants of both measured intelligence and educational success. Sociologists point to a range of influences, including nutrition, housing, parental income, and quality of schooling. For example, poor nutrition can directly impair cognitive development. Pierre Bourdieu's concept of 'cultural capital' is crucial here; he argued that middle-class children possess the language, knowledge, and attitudes ('habitus') that the education system values. This is often mistaken for higher intelligence, giving them an inbuilt advantage. Furthermore, the 'Flynn Effect'—the observed rise in average IQ scores in most parts of the world over the 20th century—strongly suggests that environmental factors, such as improved education and nutrition, play a major role, as the gene pool has not changed.

Most contemporary sociologists adopt an interactionist perspective, acknowledging that intelligence is likely a product of a complex interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental factors. Genes may set a potential range for an individual's cognitive ability, but their social environment determines where within that range they ultimately function. Sociologists also challenge the very definition of intelligence used by IQ tests. Howard Gardner's theory of 'multiple intelligences' proposes that there are many different kinds of intelligence (e.g., musical, interpersonal, kinaesthetic) that are ignored by traditional tests and the education system. This suggests that schools reward a very narrow type of 'academic intelligence', which is not a comprehensive measure of a person's overall ability or worth.