Revise Society and economy (750–1400) for IB History (2.1)

European society during this period is best understood through the twin concepts of feudalism and manorialism. Feudalism was a political and military arrangement among the nobility. A king or high lord granted land, known as a fief, to a lesser lord or knight (a vassal). In return, the vassal swore an oath of fealty, promising military support and counsel. This created a complex web of obligations that formed the backbone of political power in the absence of strong, centralised states.

Manorialism was the economic engine that powered this system. It was a system of rural organisation where a lord's manor, or estate, was the principal unit of production. The land was worked by peasants, many of whom were serfs tied to the land. They owed labour services and a portion of their produce to the lord in exchange for protection and the right to cultivate a small plot for their own subsistence. The manor was largely self-sufficient, producing its own food, clothing, and tools, with limited trade with the outside world, especially in the earlier part of this period.

In contrast to much of contemporary Europe, society in the major Islamic caliphates (e.g., Abbasid, Fatimid) was highly urbanised and commercial. Cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba were massive centres of population, culture, and economic activity, far larger than any European city of the time. Society was not structured around a feudal nobility in the European sense, but was more diverse, with powerful groups including the ruling elite, the religious scholars (ulama), a large and influential merchant class, and skilled artisans.

From around the 11th century, Europe began to experience a 'Commercial Revolution'. This involved a significant expansion of trade, the growth of towns and cities, and the emergence of a powerful merchant class. Italian city-states like Venice and Genoa dominated Mediterranean trade, re-establishing links with the East, while in the north, the Hanseatic League controlled commerce in the Baltic and North Seas. This led to increased monetisation of the economy, the development of new business techniques (many borrowed from the Islamic world), and the slow erosion of the manorial system as lords began to desire cash and luxury goods, and serfs sought freedom in the growing towns.