Revise Societies in transition (1400-1700) for IB History (2.3)

In Europe, three interconnected movements formed the intellectual core of this era's transition. The Renaissance revived classical learning and centred the human experience, the Reformation fractured religious unity and challenged papal authority, and the Scientific Revolution proposed a new way of understanding the natural world based on observation and reason. These were not separate events but a cascade of change, where a humanist's rediscovery of an ancient text could inspire a reformer's theological challenge, which in turn fostered a climate where scientific questioning could flourish.

The intellectual shifts were mirrored by profound economic transformations. The decline of feudalism, the growth of cities, and the rise of a wealthy merchant class (bourgeoisie) altered traditional social hierarchies. The 'Age of Discovery' integrated the Americas into a new global economy, leading to the Columbian Exchange and the development of mercantilist policies by European states, all of which had dramatic and often devastating consequences for indigenous populations.

(New Technology + New Ideas) $\times Global Connections = Societal Transformation$

While Europe was undergoing its revolutions, other powerful empires were managing societal transition in different ways. The Ottoman Empire, at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, developed methods to govern a vast, multi-ethnic population. In contrast, the Tokugawa Shogunate in Japan sought to create stability by strictly controlling social structures and limiting foreign contact. Examining these two non-European examples provides crucial perspective on the varied nature of societal change in this period.